Orgganisational development:career strategies in a post-modern world

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1. Introduction

In the past employment was represented by the traditional “job-for-life”. Permanent, full-time, “ to 5”, “Monday to Friday” work is no longer the only route to success. In today’s post-modern society, individuals are taking more responsibility for their lives as well as for their careers. People are masters as well as creators of their own futures. Such things as globalisation, the changing structure of the organisation, the reliance on Information Technology and the need for skill development have changed the way people theoretically see work as well as the way they practically go about work. The protean career has become a reality. Today the organisation is secondary and seen as the environment or context in which individuals pursue their careers. Careers are not inhibited by organisational boundaries, individuals move between organisations if they are equipped with the necessary transferable skills. Certain career strategies have come to the fore in response to the changing world of work in this post-modern society namely networking, mentorship relationships and skill development.

This essay deals with the above issues. The first issue that will be discussed is that of post-modernism and its relationship to the world of work. Secondly the ways in which the world of work has changed will be discussed and includes a brief explanation of work alternatives, change, technological impacts, just-in-time training, self-reliance, skill emphasis and globalisation. Next, the major trends in the dynamic world of work will be explored. The fourth topic is an examination of the implications of the changes in the organisation on careers and comprises a review of the protean career, boundaryless careers, continuous learning, new employment relationships and the concept of career security. Lastly, career strategies will be investigated

. Post-modernism




Post-modern culture is often presented as an alternative to existing society, which is seen as structurally limited or fundamentally flawed. The discussion of post-modern culture focuses to a great extent on an emerging new individual identity or subject position, one that abandons what may in retrospect be the narrow scope of the modern individual with its claims to rationality and autonomy (Poster, 15)

Post-modernity concentrates on the tensions of difference and similarity erupting from these globalisation processes circulation via people, cross-cultural interaction, interaction of local and global knowledge. Postmodernism manifests historical perspective of modernism and modernity.

(http//www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/46/pomo.htm#Comments)

Postmodernism is not just a philosophical movement it is found also, for example, in architecture, the graphic arts, dance, music, literature, and literary theory. As a general cultural phenomenon, it has such features as the challenging of convention, the mixing of styles, tolerance of ambiguity, emphasis on diversity, acceptance and celebration of innovation and change, and stress on the constructedness of reality (Hutchinson, 18).

The post-modern organisation may be defined as that comprising a networked set of diverse, self-managed, self-controlled teams with poly-centres (many centres) of coordination that fold and unfold according to the requirements of the tasks. Likewise, these teams are organised in a flat design, employees are highly empowered and involved in the job, information is fluid and continuous improvement is emphasised throughout (Boje, Gephart & Thackery, 000)

The post-modern organisational form has been used as a contrast to bureaucratic forms of organisation. Peter Drucker first applied the term post-modern to organisation, in 157, in a book titled, Landmarks of Tomorrow. By post-modern, Drucker meant a shift from the Cartesian universe of mechanical cause/effect (subject/object duality) to a new universe of pattern, purpose, and process. Such organisations are now called loosely coupled, fluid, organic, and adhocratic instead of the static bureaucratic structures that have traditionally preoccupied much of the organisation literature (Hardy & Palmer, 1).

. Changing world of work

The world of work has dramatically changed over the past 0 years, and as a result, how people earn their living and plan their work lives has transformed too.

.1 Variety of Work Alternatives Most significantly, different forms of work are being created to replace employment in a traditional “job-for-life”. Permanent, full-time, “ to 5”, “Monday to Friday” work is no longer the only (or best) route to success. Today, people may find themselves strategically multi-tracking (i.e. juggling a number of part-time positions) or perhaps working on a casual or part-time basis to better accommodate their other life roles. They could even work on short or long-term contracts, do consulting, or even start their own business.

. Change The new millennium’s workplace will be in rapid, constant change. If one can understand change and can manage it well, success will be the result.

. Technological Impacts Information technology continues to affect how people work, play and learn. Technology advancements have allowed for more flexibility in the work environment. One can expect to see an increase in the number of home offices and increased use of email, fax and computer technology.

.4 Just-in-time training Due to the information economy, it is virtually impossible to learn everything one needs to know ahead of time to do a job. Rapid learning will be expected. An individual has an advantage if he/she can learn and instruct quickly and make a commitment to life long learning.

.5 Fusion Jobs of the future will become hyphenated, or there will be a fusion of titles like graphic designer-webmaster or accountant-sales. One must be prepared for the importance of combining a variety of skills to a particular task.

.6 Self-Reliance Workers will need to be prepared to take the initiative in creatively marketing their skills and to be open to a variety of work alternatives. Individuals will need to be more responsible for his/her own career development.

.7 Emphasis on Skills “Skills security” is what workers should rely on versus the old “long-term job security”. Individuals must keep their skills current and market them effectively in growing areas of the economy, to increase their ability to find work. Individuals need to first identify and develop skill sets and then find areas of work where they can be applied.

.8 Globalisation

There have been enormous changes in the world of work, and they seem to be happening at an ever-increasing pace. Globalisation is the progressive integration of societies and national economies in different parts of the world. It is driven by the interaction of technological developments, trade and investment policy reforms, and the changing production, organisational and marketing strategies of multinational companies. The pace and depth of globalisation differ across countries and regions, but the main economic aspects of the process are essentially the same.

(http//www.ilo.org/public/english/region/ampro/cinterfor/temas/gender/doc/pacto/global.htm.)

Global forces of competition, deregulation, and new technology, are increasing the need for organisations, which can respond rapidly to market demand. Also, the shape of the organisation is changing. Examples include delayering, with organisations becoming leaner, where responsibility is passed further down the line, outsourcing, where many organisations have stripped their workforce down to those who perform the central or core functions, and other functions are outsourced, multi-disciplinary teams and project teams are a popular feature of many companies, emphasis on service activities, both internal and external to the organisation, and of course, the growing use role of Information Technology

Some common themes emerge both as issues for theoretical investigation and as practical strategies for organisational change. Alongside the emphasis on IT in supporting new organisational forms for the coordination and control of work, these themes are 1) the need for a greater reliance on knowledge creation and conversion; ) the decentralisation of organisational structures; ) the creation of more flexible patterns of intra and extra organisational relationships; 4) creating the conditions for a workforce which is not only more empowered but also imbued with a commitment to organisational goals. Information Technology is seen as a key element in these changes, especially systems that can facilitate coordination and communication of decision-making, and support skill and knowledge. (Zuboff, 188) Collaborative work, a central feature of organisations, is increasingly electronically supported, as proclaimed by the marked movement of computers into the world of work and organisation (Grudin, 10).

One of the organisational concepts which is receiving considerable attention is that of the virtual organisation’, a form of organisation which, it is claimed, implements the above themes. Its aim is to promote the constant innovation required for organisational success in the contemporary world (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 15). Just as organisations are perceived to have changed in response to technological developments so, too, have skill requirements.

. Major trends in the Changing World of Work include

· New technologies growing use of information and communication technology;

· Growth in the service sector, more specific risks (ergonomics and personal contact with people, stress, violence);

· New forms of work, such as tele-work, self-employment, subcontracting, temporary employment;

· Integration and globalisation;

· Ageing workforce;

· Raising employability through new qualifications, increasing interest in autonomous work;

· Changing management structures - organisations have become flatter, smaller and leaner;

· Increasing participation of women in the workforce;

· Growing number of SMEs, in which health and safety knowledge and resources are often insufficient;

· Increasing work pace and workload.

..1 New Forms of Work Organisations

The efforts of management worldwide to meet fast changing demands on production of goods and services have resulted in new forms of work organisation. As mentioned above, the aim is to create lean and flexible organisations for the core activities of companies. Activities that are not considered as belonging to the core production are outsourced and subcontracted. Companies with various core tasks create networks to assist each other when need arises. Especially in the sector of Information and Communication Technology an increasing number of consultants on self-employed basis are active.

(http//europe.osha.eu.int/research/rtopics/change/change.asp?tcid=)

.. New Forms of Contractual Relationships

The changes in working life have given rise to new contractual relationships. Temporary and fixed-term contracts between employers and employees are increasing. Even contracts stipulating work on demand/call have appeared on the labour market. The activities of employment agencies are considered an important asset in supplying staff with the right skill when needed. Consultants contracted for specific tasks are in increasing demand. The traditional permanent contracts still constitute however about 80% of existing employment contracts.

(http//europe.osha.eu.int/research/rtopics/change/change.asp?tcid=)

.. New Patterns of Working Time

As a consequence of organisational changes and demand for flexible production of goods and services the pattern of working hours is changing. Varying and irregular working hours are conditions, which especially staff in the service sector are faced with. Part-time work on permanent contract is also fairly common, and is sometimes an effect of downsizing an organisation. Night and shift work as well as weekend work fit well into the changes of the activities of the major industries and still constitute an important part of their work organisation. On the whole, working hours have become more irregular and unpredictable, and at the same time the individual control over working time seems to have decreased.

(http//europe.osha.eu.int/research/rtopics/change/change.asp?tcid=)

..4 Growing Use of new Technologies

In present working life information and communication technology (ICT) is rapidly growing in importance as a tool in the production of goods and services. ICT has made diffusion of workplaces within one and the same organisation possible. New types of ICT based activities, like information centres and reservation facilities, have been established in rural areas as distance is of no relevance with the new technology. The globalisation of business life has also been supported by ICT.

(http//europe.osha.eu.int/research/rtopics/change/change.asp?tcid=)

..5 Changes in the Workforce

The trend is that young people will, to a larger extent than older people, be employed on basis of the new, flexible forms of contractual relationships on the labour market. Employment policies related to working time often lead to gender segregation.

(http//europe.osha.eu.int/research/rtopics/change/change.asp?tcid=)

4. Implications of the changing organisation for careers

Most employment environments are changing from what we have been accustomed to. Here are some of the implications of these changes for our personal career management

Table 4.1 Implications of changes in organisations

Previously Now

Predictable futures Less certainty and more ambiguity in job roles.

Targeting moves to a specific job Matching yourself with work content based on your values

Carrying outset tasks Frequent task changes and working in teams.

Stable work situation Shifting organisational needs

Having one job title Having a range of roles; juggling many functions

Staying in one occupational stream Transferring your skills into many work fields

Avoiding change Embracing change

Defining career success by indicators from others Inner definition of self and what is worthwhile

Living with certainty Thriving in uncertainty

(adapted from Paul Stevens, Changing World of Work, The Centre for Worklfe Counselling)

4.1 Careers to become more protean (variable/changeable)

A movement has been taking place in the past two decades in steering away from the traditional 0 years and a gold watch work philosophy to a motion towards nonspecialised professionalism and individual growth.

According to Hall in Shreuder & Theron (001), the concept of a protean career encourages the employee to think differently about the relationship between employee and employer. Today the organisation is secondary and seen as the environment or context in which individuals pursue their careers. However the idea of a protean career does not appeal to everyone. It brings with it a decrease in external control and an increase in personal responsibility, which is often alarming for some people. The protean career is characterised by psychological success, management by the individual, continuous learning, a high level of self-awareness, personal responsibility and a high degree of mobility (Hall in Shreuder & Theron, 001).

Career management is increasingly viewed as the responsibility of the person rather than the organisation, resulting in a shift from the organisational career to the “protean career.” The authors define the protean career in the following terms

· Careers are managed by individuals, not organisations. Careers are a lifelong sequence of experiences, skills, learning, transitions, and identity changes.

· Development is continuous, self-directed, relational, and imbedded in work challenges.

· Development is not necessarily formal training, retraining, or upward mobility.

· Ingredients for success shift from know-how to learn-how; from job security to employment security; from organisational career to protean careers; and from “work-self” to “whole self.”

· The organisation provides challenging assignments, developmental relationships, information and other developmental resources.

· The goal is psychological success.

Both individuals and organisations need to take a more active role in developing their capacity to adapt to the new career realities in ways that produce healthier outcomes for all concerned (Hall & Moss, 18).

4. Boundaryless careers

In the boundaryless career individuals have ownership of their careers, that is, they manage their own careers. In this career environment employability is determined by performance and flexibility. Success is on an individual personal level, it is measured by meaningful work and milestones in the career are learning-related. Careers are not inhibited by organisational boundaries, individuals move between organisations if they are equipped with the necessary transferable skills (Gunz in Shreuder & Theron, 001). It must be noted however that although boundaries have degenerated in organisations and in individual careers they are not eliminated completely. Individuals will still encounter boundaries that may be self-imposed.

4. Career progress and success is redefined

There is a misconception that career success is represented by upwards (vertical movement up the corporate ladder and mastery of the job, however, even though this may be true for some, many people see success in a psychological context, in achieving personal goals. The traditional view of the career path, that is upward movement, is being replaced by movement across functional boundaries, highlighting the importance of multiple skills (Waterman in Shreuder & Theron, 001). Career success can also be measured in terms of the amount of learning that has taken place and marketable skills. Technical specialisation, cross-functional and international experience, collaborative leadership, self-management skill and flexibility are essential to future career success (Holbeche in Shreuder & Theron, 000).

4.4 Continuous learning

Changes are constantly taking place in all jobs at all levels. Employees need to develop new skills acquire more knowledge to keep up with these changes. According to London & Mone (in Shreuder & Theron, 001) “ continuous learning is the process by which one acquires knowledge, skills and abiltiies throughout ones career in reaction to and in anticipation of, changing performance criteria”.

4.5 Career resilience

For people to survive in the current working environment, they must develop resilience. Career resilience can be described as the ability to adapt to changing circumstances. In today’s working world, the development of career resilience has become a critical career competency (Shreuder & Theron, 001).

4.6 New employment relationship forged

Changes in the workplace are coupled with change in employment relations. The following types of employment relations are emerging

Long-term insiders core employees

Short-term insiders careerists and jugglers

Long-term outsiders pooled workers

Short-term outsiders temporaries and independent contractors

4.7 Security lies in employability rather than in employment

The structural nature of the post-modern organisation threatens employee security and stability. As mentioned above, the organisation is flatter, the workforce is downsized and new employment relations are formed. Security has therefore shifted from the organisation to the individual, that is, from employment to employability. Employment security lies in the individuals’ skills and reputation and is measured in terms of their future opportunities (Shreuder & Theron, 001).

5. Career strategies in the changing world of work

5.1 Networks and networking

Networking is an essential component of every career and campaign. In the new millennium, who you know will continue to be just as important as what you know. Individuals who fail to focus on initiating and maintaining professional relationships will find their career goals difficult to attain. The good news is that networking and relationship building are skills that anyone can learn to master.

Setting up networking meetings with friends, professional acquaintances, and referrals is the first step in the networking process. Where many individuals tend to get stuck is in knowing what to do and say once they have arrived at their networking meeting. Networking novices often make the critical mistake of being passive in their initial meetings. It is important to remember that the networking contact has agreed to take the time out of a busy schedule to meet. It is the individuals job to be focused and prepared for the meeting. Since most networking meetings tend to be short (0 minutes or less), it is critical to prepare an agenda before meeting with each networking contact.

Three types of networks will help you move forward.

Personal networks Family and friends, like-minded people whose eyes light up when they see you. These are the people who make you feel good or recharged when youre around them, who love you, and who want to see you happy. Making time for your personal network is absolutely necessary for motivation.

Social networks These are networks of acquaintances you see less often. They are people you have fun with and see at parties, or people who enjoy similar hobbies such as working out, hiking, cycling, or going to the movies. If youre new in town, develop and expand your social networks by meeting people at places you enjoy, or by taking continuing education classes or volunteering in your community.

Professional networks These are groups of people you meet even less often than social acquaintances. You see them at alumni gatherings, at professional meetings, or in the workplace. Professional networks also include former co-workers, bosses, academic advisers, and professors. Included, too, are career counsellors, who can be hired as personal mentors, coaching you to press forward and attain your goals. (http//content.monsterindia.com/getahead/movingup/658/)

5. Mentoring relationships

Mentoring relationships are important for all organisational members. A mentor is that one person who can guide the individual, help him or her, take him/her under his or her wing, and nurture your career quest (a Yoda to your Luke Skywalker). What separates a mentor from the average network contact is long-term commitment and a deep-seated investment in the future of the prot�g�. Where a typical network contact might be associated with quick introductions, exchanges of business cards, and phone calls, a relationship with a mentor likely involves long lunches and time spent in the mentors office. A mentor is often in a position the prot�g� would like to be in and has the clout and connections to guide the prot�g� to a similar position. An effective mentor isnt afraid to criticise constructively.

To find a mentor and individual should identify someone who he or she admires, and test the waters by asking advice. Mentors are most likely to invest themselves in those in whom they see a little of themselves. The mentor wants to work with someone he or she can respect. He or she may even desire to mould the prot�g� in his or her own image, which is fine as long as the mentor is not too obsessive about it, and you are comfortable with the image into which youre being moulded. You should have a good feel after a few meetings as to whether the rapport is right for a mentoring relationship.

Experts say the best way to advance is by having a trusted and powerful mentor. A mentor is a person who advises and coaches a fellow employee, offers support, and acts as their advocate. From the beginning, a mentor shows the employee the ropes, introduces him or her to the right people, and points him or her in the right direction, suggesting training and professional development opportunities for career advancement. In short, a mentor works to ensure that an employee receive advantages for advancement.

Few are lucky enough to have mentors tooting their horns. Most stumble along or believe success depends upon qualifications and credentials. Credentials do open doors, yet advancement requires more, including motivation and multiple networks.

6. Conclusion

This essay has dealt with the many issues. The philosophy of post-modernism is related to the world of work. It affects the ways in which individuals relate to the organisations, the emphasis they place on employment and the skills necessary to be successful. The changes in the world of work are also discussed in this essay, that is, the increasing diversity of work alternatives, the fact that information and communication technology (ICT) is rapidly growing in importance as a tool and the reality that people have to become more self reliant. Next, the major trends in the dynamic world of work have been explored which includes new forms of work organisations, working times and contractual relationships and changes in the work force. Change in the organisation has many implications on careers individuals must adapt to the philosophy of the protean career, allow their careers to boundaryless. There is a need for continuous learning, skill development and the realisation that security no longer lies in the fact that an individual has a job rather it relies on an individuals employability. Lastly, career strategies such as networking and mentorship are discussed.



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